Electron Transport Chain and Energy Production

In cellular biology, the electron transport chain is one of the steps in your cells processes that make energy from the foods you eat.   It is the third step of aerobic cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the term for how your bodys cells make energy from food consumed. The electron transport chain is where most of the energy cells need to operate is generated. This chain is actually a series of protein complexes and electron carrier molecules within the inner membrane of cell mitochondria, also known as the cells powerhouse. Oxygen is required for  aerobic respiration  as the chain terminates with the donation of electrons to oxygen.   Key Takeaways: Electron Transport Chain The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes and electron carrier molecules within the inner membrane of mitochondria that generate ATP for energy.Electrons are passed along the chain from protein complex to protein complex until they are donated to oxygen. During the passage of electrons, protons are pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix across the inner membrane and into the intermembrane space.The accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space creates an electrochemical gradient that causes protons to flow down the gradient and back into the matrix through ATP synthase. This movement of protons provides the energy for the production of ATP.The electron  transport chain is the third step of aerobic cellular respiration. Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are the first two steps of cellular respiration. How Energy Is Made As electrons move along a chain, the movement or momentum is used to create  adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the main source of energy for many cellular processes including muscle contraction and cell division. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a organic chemical that provides energy for cell. ttsz / iStock / Getty Images Plus Energy is released during cell metabolism when ATP is hydrolyzed. This happens when electrons are passed along the chain from protein complex to protein complex until they are donated to oxygen forming water.  ATP chemically decomposes to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) by reacting with water. ADP is in turn used to synthesize ATP. In more detail, as electrons are passed along a chain from protein complex to protein complex, energy is released and hydrogen ions (H) are pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix (compartment within the inner  membrane) and into the intermembrane space (compartment between the inner and outer membranes). All this activity creates both a chemical gradient (difference in solution concentration) and an electrical gradient (difference in charge) across the inner membrane. As more H  ions are pumped into the intermembrane space, the higher concentration of  hydrogen atoms  will build up and flow back to the matrix simultaneously powering the production of ATP by the protein complex ATP synthase. ATP synthase uses the energy generated from the movement of H  ions into the matrix for the conversion of ADP to ATP. This process of oxidizing molecules to generate energy for the production of ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation. The First Steps of Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. normaals / iStock / Getty Images Plus The first step of cellular respiration is glycolysis. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the splitting of one molecule of glucose into two molecules of the chemical compound pyruvate. In all, two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADH (high energy, electron carrying molecule) are generated. The second step, called the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle, is when pyruvate is transported across the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes into the mitochondrial matrix. Pyruvate is further oxidized in the Krebs cycle producing two more molecules of ATP, as well as NADH and FADH 2 molecules. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to the third step of cellular respiration, the electron transport chain. Protein Complexes in the Chain There are four protein complexes  that are part of the electron transport chain that functions to pass electrons down the chain. A fifth protein complex serves to transport hydrogen ions back into the matrix. These complexes are embedded within the inner mitochondrial membrane.   Illustration of electron transport chain with oxidative phosphorylation. extender01 / iStock / Getty Images Plus Complex I NADH transfers two electrons to Complex I resulting in four H ions being pumped across the inner membrane. NADH is oxidized to NAD, which is recycled back into the Krebs cycle. Electrons are transferred from Complex I to a carrier molecule ubiquinone (Q), which is reduced to ubiquinol (QH2). Ubiquinol carries the electrons to Complex III. Complex II FADH2 transfers electrons to Complex II and the electrons are passed along to ubiquinone (Q). Q is reduced to ubiquinol (QH2), which carries the electrons to Complex III. No H ions are transported to the intermembrane space in this process. Complex III The passage of electrons to Complex III drives the transport of four more H ions across the inner membrane. QH2 is oxidized and electrons are passed to another electron carrier protein cytochrome C. Complex IV Cytochrome C passes electrons to the final protein complex in the chain, Complex IV. Two H ions are pumped across the inner membrane. The electrons are then passed from Complex IV to an oxygen (O2) molecule, causing the molecule to split. The resulting oxygen atoms quickly grab H ions to form two molecules of water. ATP Synthase ATP synthase moves H ions that were pumped out of the matrix by the electron transport chain back into the matrix. The energy from the influx of protons into the matrix is used to generate ATP by the phosphorylation (addition of a phosphate) of ADP. The movement of ions across the selectively permeable mitochondrial membrane and down their electrochemical gradient is called chemiosmosis. NADH generates more ATP than FADH2. For every NADH molecule that is oxidized, 10 H ions are pumped into the intermembrane space. This yields about three ATP molecules. Because FADH2 enters the chain at a later stage (Complex II), only six H ions are transferred to the intermembrane space. This accounts for about two ATP molecules. A total of 32 ATP molecules are generated in electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation. Sources Electron Transport in the Energy Cycle of the Cell. HyperPhysics, hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/etrans.html.Lodish, Harvey, et al. Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th Edition., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2000, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21528/.

Decision-Making Innovation - 782 Words

The term, ‘innovation’ refers to an act of doing something new (Dictionary) while the term, ‘decision making’ can be referred to as a ‘deliberation about the decision situation in order to make a choice’ (O’Sullivan, T. 1988). This paper intends to explore the relatedness between ‘Decision Making in Social Work’ and the research on innovation, â€Å"Investigating Innovation Using a Context: Community Based Child Care Services†. Social work aims to promote ‘social change, problem solving in human relationships and empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being’ (Gamble, D. N. Weil, M. 2010), which are associated with a series of decision making. Crises intervention is also an area, social workers persistently focus upon, and decision making, in this context, mostly appears to be very perplexing. Focusing on this challenge, Terence O’Sullivan (1988) argues that the ‘social workers need to be critically aware of the contexts, in which decisions are made’ (O’Sullivan, T. 1988, p. 41). O’Sullivan, however, refers to the context as ‘the requirement, structures and conditions surrounding the decision making’ ((O’Sullivan, T. 1988, p. 23). Critical awareness of the context, as referred by O’Sullivan (1988), requires skills and activities beyond the gathering of knowledge associated with the context. Critical awareness is an outcome of higher order cognitive process that requires critical thinking skills (Ennis, 1993), and reflective thinking skills (Dewey, 1933; Baron,Show MoreRelatedDisruptive Innovation : An Organization s Decision Making Process2564 Words   |  11 Pages Disruptive Innovation Dina M. Stewart University of Minnesota â€Æ' Disruptive Innovation Health care, like so many industries, has been rapidly changing over the past several decades. 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Critique Essay Example For Students

Critique Essay ?Melender, H. S. Lauri, S. (1999). Fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth-Experiences of women who have recently given birth Midwifery, 15(3), 178-183. This descriptive study was undertaken to describe fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth. Also to see whether women who have recently given birth feel that their fears were justified. A convenience sample of 20 women, 10 primipare and 10 multiparae were interviewed in the maternity units of two university hospitals in Finland. A qualitative study was used, and data were collected by semi-structured interviews held 2 or 3 days after childbirth. Datainterpretation was based on the method of content analysis. The authors found that the most common fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth wereconcerns with the babys well-being, the course of pregnancy, and childbirth. The fears found expression in different kinds of behaviors, emotions and physical sensations. Many of the participants felt that their fears had not been justified, but some maintained that their fears had been justifiable. The authors conclude that there was much inter-individual variation in the fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth. The findings further verify the importance that diagnosis during pregnancy is undertaken sensitively and that the care-giver remember that pregnant women may have very serious fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth. Critique:This study is timely, and in general, well done. The sample size was small, therefore, generalizations to an entire population cannot be made. The authors have done an adequate job of explaining their findings in understandable terms and document their rationale with a concise literature review. They give an appropriate rational for the convenience sampling of the Finnish women. The discussion is clearly written. The conclusions the authors draw are consistent withthe data presented, and they conclude with a well defined point that it may not be essential to try to protect women against these fears, but to give every pregnant women the opportunity to deal with her own fears and to obtain the help she needs in her situation. BibliographyMelender, H. S. Lauri, S. (1999). Fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth-Experiences of women who have recently given birth Midwifery, 15(3), 178-183.

Safest American Essays - Sedans, Coupes, Mid-size Cars, Muscle Cars

Safest American The Safest American made sedan by far is the 1994 Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme LS. It is so because of the driving smoothness it offers on bumpy terrain, its size is bigger than a sports car, which enables it to sustain more damage. This car is also the safest because it is easy to reach the controls, so while you are driving you will not have to worry about leaning over to reach a button. The main good thing about this automobile is the price of it. You can now buy such a safe car for only sixteen thousand nine hundred ninety-five dollars. The price of this vehicle is more than descent when you look at all the features that it has. It has a drivers side airbag for extra protection. It also provides you with a three point on liter v-six engine and for-wheel anti-lock brakes, or ABS as some like to call it. If you think about it, this is a pretty impressive package. This price puts this car in range with some other notably safe cars such as the Ford Taurus and the Dodge Intrepid. It really does not matter though, since the LS is much safer. Weather can really get on your nerves, and that is why this vehicle has been added with rear-window and side-window defoggers to clear up any moisty mists that want to hang out on your glass. The car also has great traction, which was tested by the average human being, and not just Oldsmobile staff. These people say that the traction is nice and smooth, making this car perfect for rainy weather. Psychology Essays