Electron Transport Chain and Energy Production

In cellular biology, the electron transport chain is one of the steps in your cells processes that make energy from the foods you eat.   It is the third step of aerobic cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is the term for how your bodys cells make energy from food consumed. The electron transport chain is where most of the energy cells need to operate is generated. This chain is actually a series of protein complexes and electron carrier molecules within the inner membrane of cell mitochondria, also known as the cells powerhouse. Oxygen is required for  aerobic respiration  as the chain terminates with the donation of electrons to oxygen.   Key Takeaways: Electron Transport Chain The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes and electron carrier molecules within the inner membrane of mitochondria that generate ATP for energy.Electrons are passed along the chain from protein complex to protein complex until they are donated to oxygen. During the passage of electrons, protons are pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix across the inner membrane and into the intermembrane space.The accumulation of protons in the intermembrane space creates an electrochemical gradient that causes protons to flow down the gradient and back into the matrix through ATP synthase. This movement of protons provides the energy for the production of ATP.The electron  transport chain is the third step of aerobic cellular respiration. Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are the first two steps of cellular respiration. How Energy Is Made As electrons move along a chain, the movement or momentum is used to create  adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the main source of energy for many cellular processes including muscle contraction and cell division. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a organic chemical that provides energy for cell. ttsz / iStock / Getty Images Plus Energy is released during cell metabolism when ATP is hydrolyzed. This happens when electrons are passed along the chain from protein complex to protein complex until they are donated to oxygen forming water.  ATP chemically decomposes to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) by reacting with water. ADP is in turn used to synthesize ATP. In more detail, as electrons are passed along a chain from protein complex to protein complex, energy is released and hydrogen ions (H) are pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix (compartment within the inner  membrane) and into the intermembrane space (compartment between the inner and outer membranes). All this activity creates both a chemical gradient (difference in solution concentration) and an electrical gradient (difference in charge) across the inner membrane. As more H  ions are pumped into the intermembrane space, the higher concentration of  hydrogen atoms  will build up and flow back to the matrix simultaneously powering the production of ATP by the protein complex ATP synthase. ATP synthase uses the energy generated from the movement of H  ions into the matrix for the conversion of ADP to ATP. This process of oxidizing molecules to generate energy for the production of ATP is called oxidative phosphorylation. The First Steps of Cellular Respiration Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products. normaals / iStock / Getty Images Plus The first step of cellular respiration is glycolysis. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and involves the splitting of one molecule of glucose into two molecules of the chemical compound pyruvate. In all, two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADH (high energy, electron carrying molecule) are generated. The second step, called the citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle, is when pyruvate is transported across the outer and inner mitochondrial membranes into the mitochondrial matrix. Pyruvate is further oxidized in the Krebs cycle producing two more molecules of ATP, as well as NADH and FADH 2 molecules. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to the third step of cellular respiration, the electron transport chain. Protein Complexes in the Chain There are four protein complexes  that are part of the electron transport chain that functions to pass electrons down the chain. A fifth protein complex serves to transport hydrogen ions back into the matrix. These complexes are embedded within the inner mitochondrial membrane.   Illustration of electron transport chain with oxidative phosphorylation. extender01 / iStock / Getty Images Plus Complex I NADH transfers two electrons to Complex I resulting in four H ions being pumped across the inner membrane. NADH is oxidized to NAD, which is recycled back into the Krebs cycle. Electrons are transferred from Complex I to a carrier molecule ubiquinone (Q), which is reduced to ubiquinol (QH2). Ubiquinol carries the electrons to Complex III. Complex II FADH2 transfers electrons to Complex II and the electrons are passed along to ubiquinone (Q). Q is reduced to ubiquinol (QH2), which carries the electrons to Complex III. No H ions are transported to the intermembrane space in this process. Complex III The passage of electrons to Complex III drives the transport of four more H ions across the inner membrane. QH2 is oxidized and electrons are passed to another electron carrier protein cytochrome C. Complex IV Cytochrome C passes electrons to the final protein complex in the chain, Complex IV. Two H ions are pumped across the inner membrane. The electrons are then passed from Complex IV to an oxygen (O2) molecule, causing the molecule to split. The resulting oxygen atoms quickly grab H ions to form two molecules of water. ATP Synthase ATP synthase moves H ions that were pumped out of the matrix by the electron transport chain back into the matrix. The energy from the influx of protons into the matrix is used to generate ATP by the phosphorylation (addition of a phosphate) of ADP. The movement of ions across the selectively permeable mitochondrial membrane and down their electrochemical gradient is called chemiosmosis. NADH generates more ATP than FADH2. For every NADH molecule that is oxidized, 10 H ions are pumped into the intermembrane space. This yields about three ATP molecules. Because FADH2 enters the chain at a later stage (Complex II), only six H ions are transferred to the intermembrane space. This accounts for about two ATP molecules. A total of 32 ATP molecules are generated in electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation. Sources Electron Transport in the Energy Cycle of the Cell. HyperPhysics, hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Biology/etrans.html.Lodish, Harvey, et al. Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th Edition., U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2000, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21528/.

Decision-Making Innovation - 782 Words

The term, ‘innovation’ refers to an act of doing something new (Dictionary) while the term, ‘decision making’ can be referred to as a ‘deliberation about the decision situation in order to make a choice’ (O’Sullivan, T. 1988). This paper intends to explore the relatedness between ‘Decision Making in Social Work’ and the research on innovation, â€Å"Investigating Innovation Using a Context: Community Based Child Care Services†. Social work aims to promote ‘social change, problem solving in human relationships and empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being’ (Gamble, D. N. Weil, M. 2010), which are associated with a series of decision making. Crises intervention is also an area, social workers persistently focus upon, and decision making, in this context, mostly appears to be very perplexing. Focusing on this challenge, Terence O’Sullivan (1988) argues that the ‘social workers need to be critically aware of the contexts, in which decisions are made’ (O’Sullivan, T. 1988, p. 41). O’Sullivan, however, refers to the context as ‘the requirement, structures and conditions surrounding the decision making’ ((O’Sullivan, T. 1988, p. 23). Critical awareness of the context, as referred by O’Sullivan (1988), requires skills and activities beyond the gathering of knowledge associated with the context. Critical awareness is an outcome of higher order cognitive process that requires critical thinking skills (Ennis, 1993), and reflective thinking skills (Dewey, 1933; Baron,Show MoreRelatedDisruptive Innovation : An Organization s Decision Making Process2564 Words   |  11 Pages Disruptive Innovation Dina M. Stewart University of Minnesota â€Æ' Disruptive Innovation Health care, like so many industries, has been rapidly changing over the past several decades. 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Critique Essay Example For Students

Critique Essay ?Melender, H. S. Lauri, S. (1999). Fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth-Experiences of women who have recently given birth Midwifery, 15(3), 178-183. This descriptive study was undertaken to describe fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth. Also to see whether women who have recently given birth feel that their fears were justified. A convenience sample of 20 women, 10 primipare and 10 multiparae were interviewed in the maternity units of two university hospitals in Finland. A qualitative study was used, and data were collected by semi-structured interviews held 2 or 3 days after childbirth. Datainterpretation was based on the method of content analysis. The authors found that the most common fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth wereconcerns with the babys well-being, the course of pregnancy, and childbirth. The fears found expression in different kinds of behaviors, emotions and physical sensations. Many of the participants felt that their fears had not been justified, but some maintained that their fears had been justifiable. The authors conclude that there was much inter-individual variation in the fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth. The findings further verify the importance that diagnosis during pregnancy is undertaken sensitively and that the care-giver remember that pregnant women may have very serious fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth. Critique:This study is timely, and in general, well done. The sample size was small, therefore, generalizations to an entire population cannot be made. The authors have done an adequate job of explaining their findings in understandable terms and document their rationale with a concise literature review. They give an appropriate rational for the convenience sampling of the Finnish women. The discussion is clearly written. The conclusions the authors draw are consistent withthe data presented, and they conclude with a well defined point that it may not be essential to try to protect women against these fears, but to give every pregnant women the opportunity to deal with her own fears and to obtain the help she needs in her situation. BibliographyMelender, H. S. Lauri, S. (1999). Fears associated with pregnancy and childbirth-Experiences of women who have recently given birth Midwifery, 15(3), 178-183.

Safest American Essays - Sedans, Coupes, Mid-size Cars, Muscle Cars

Safest American The Safest American made sedan by far is the 1994 Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme LS. It is so because of the driving smoothness it offers on bumpy terrain, its size is bigger than a sports car, which enables it to sustain more damage. This car is also the safest because it is easy to reach the controls, so while you are driving you will not have to worry about leaning over to reach a button. The main good thing about this automobile is the price of it. You can now buy such a safe car for only sixteen thousand nine hundred ninety-five dollars. The price of this vehicle is more than descent when you look at all the features that it has. It has a drivers side airbag for extra protection. It also provides you with a three point on liter v-six engine and for-wheel anti-lock brakes, or ABS as some like to call it. If you think about it, this is a pretty impressive package. This price puts this car in range with some other notably safe cars such as the Ford Taurus and the Dodge Intrepid. It really does not matter though, since the LS is much safer. Weather can really get on your nerves, and that is why this vehicle has been added with rear-window and side-window defoggers to clear up any moisty mists that want to hang out on your glass. The car also has great traction, which was tested by the average human being, and not just Oldsmobile staff. These people say that the traction is nice and smooth, making this car perfect for rainy weather. Psychology Essays

13 Expository Essay Topics on Drug Use and Its Consequences

13 Expository Essay Topics on Drug Use and Its Consequences If you are writing an essay on drug use and its consequences, you might be in need of facts. Below are some facts that can help you support your claims: Both psychology and sociology seek to explain drug abuse, and each has their distinct perspective on the subject. The phrase ‘drug abuse’ implies excessive use of a controlled substance, resulting in negative consequences. While sociology emphasizes the possible influence of environmental, cultural and social aspects on drug abuse, psychology seeks to establish factors that exist in a person’s sub-conscious mind as influencing drug abuse. In fact, psychological and sociological factors may account for the prevalence of drug abuse. Defining drug abuse must acknowledge social context. Negative behaviour is connoted by the term ‘drug abuse,’ according to an article from DrugLibrary.org. However, sociology views behaviour as being positive or negative based on the social context of such behaviour. The same behaviour could take on a negative or positive hue, depending on the social circumstances. There are various sociological factors – such as the socio-economic status of a person that could influence drug abuse. For instance, having to cope with adverse environmental or social conditions could drive a person to abuse drugs. A drug abuser might be encouraged by mass media or his/ her peer group, either of which might in some manner validate his behaviour. The psychological perspective explaining the causes of drug abuse focuses on a drug abuser’s inner motivations rather than his/ her social circumstances. Psychology does not allow for the possibility that a drug abuser might deliberately opt to abuse drugs, even to the extent that his/ her behaviour could result in ruining their personal relationships or financial stability. The drug abuser’s behaviour could also lead to their imprisonment, hardly a desirable option. Instead the psychological perspective stresses that the drug abuser behaves as they do because of a biological predisposition to an addiction that is beyond their control. According to the website of the California State University at Northridge, drug abuse is attributable to several environmental and cultural factors that, however, fail to account for all instances of drug abuse. Psychology discounts sociology’s ability to provide an adequate explanation as to why even under similar environmental, social, and cultural circumstances, some people abuse drugs while others don’t. Social interaction among humans is also affected by drug abuse and can have a radical effect on your child’s relations with friends, family members and others. The entire family of a drug-abusing youth is affected psychologically, financially and emotionally. Teenage drug users tend to distant themselves from members of their family as well as from activities involving such family members. Additionally, they set a poor example for younger siblings. Drug use impairs their decision-making ability and judgment, thereby inducing hostility towards their family members and even causing them to steal money from their family members to buy drugs. There is an observed decline in the academic performance of teen drug abusers, who also reveal a greater propensity to absenting themselves from school and related activities. A higher drop-out rate has also been found among drug abusers, according to relevant research. Cognitive and behavioural problems may also interfere with the academic performance of youth who use alcohol and drugs. The academic performance of youth engaging in drug and alcohol abuse is also impacted by behavioural and cognitive problems concomitant with such substance abuse. Teenage drug abusers tend to alienate themselves from peers, and the related stigma is accompanied by the youth’s disengagement from community events and school. Teens who eschew drug use are best advised to keep a healthy distance from those who use drugs. As endorsed by experts, such youth are more likely to become drug users themselves if they associate with drug abusing peers and are exposed to the latter’s delinquent behaviour. There is a perceived correlation between substance abuse and delinquency. Quite often, drug-abusing youth face consequences such as arrest and adjudication, in which case the juvenile justice system intervenes. While a clear causal relationship between substance abuse and delinquency cannot be established or for that matter, even a causal relationship between delinquency and alcohol and drug use there is no denying the fact that the two behaviours are linked. Such linkage between substance abuse and delinquency often leads to youths associating with negative peer groups, in addition to problems in the youth’s domestic and academic environments. Drugs can have a negative and harmful effect on a person’s perception, concentration and motor functions, making drugged driving a major cause for concern. Driving under the influence of drugs can cause potential harm to the driver as well as others, owing to the increased possibility of accidents. For instance, a driver’s mental faculties, under the influence of Marijuana, can stay impaired for as long as three hours after ingesting the drug, which can stay in the driver’s system for as long as 24 hours. Roughly 15% of teen drug users (or one in six such individuals) have confessed to driving under the influence. Behaviour patterns of teens influenced by drug abuse also make them vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. This may be due to injecting drugs and sharing used needles. Alternatively, it could result from lack of judgment or controlled impulse while under the influence of drugs with mood-altering properties. This in turn would increase the possibility of engaging in sexual behaviour involving greater exposure to risk. Psychosocial dysfunctions such as withdrawal, apathy, developmental lags, and depression are among the mental health problems most commonly associated with adolescent substance abuse. Youth who abuse substances are more likely than youth who desist from drug use to fall prey to mental problems. These include suicidal thoughts that can lead to suicide or attempted suicide, apart from other mental health problems such as personality disorders, conduct problems, and depression. For instance, interference with psychomotor skills, learning, and short-term memory are mental health problems commonly associated with Marijuana use. The possibility drug addiction is never considered by somebody who uses them for the first time. However, almost invariably addiction is a consequence of using drugs that have a habit-forming quality. Addiction leads in turn to loss of judgement and control; stopping use of the drug can cause severe physical and psychological symptoms. These could manifest as stress, unhappiness, irritability and anxiety, among other symptoms. Some drugs could also induce withdrawal symptoms such as bone pain, diarrhoea, flu, tremors and, in rare instances, seizures. The brain function of long-term users of drugs can change pervasively. For instance, long-term use of Ecstasy can result in sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, and memory deficits. It is quite a serious issue to write on. That’s why it’s necessary to use only truthful information. Apply these facts along with the suggested topics on drug use and its consequences to outline a high quality text. But to complete the writing you should make use of our guide on expository essays. Good luck! References: Anderson, M., Coleman, S., Ford, W., Gorsuch, R., Kaplan, H., Kleber, H., Woody, G. (1989). From Theory to Practice: The Planned Treatment of Drug Users.  Substance Use Misuse,  24(2), 123-166. doi: 10.3109/10826088909047280 Barlow, J. (2010).  Substance misuse: The implications of research, policy and practice. London: Jessica Kingsley. DeSimone, J. (2002). Illegal Drug Use and Employment.  Journal of Labor Economics,  20(4), 952-977. doi: 10.1086/342893 Everett, T., Donaghy, M., Feaver, S. (2003).  Interventions for mental health: An evidence-based approach for physiotherapists and occupational therapists. New York: Butterworth-Heinemann. Ghodse, H., Guse, S. B., Helmchen, H. (1999).  Substance misuse. London: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Millhorn, M., Monaghan, M., Montero, D., Reyes, M., Roman, T., Tollasken, R., Walls, B. (2009). North Americans Attitudes Toward Illegal Drugs.  Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment,  19(2), 125-141. doi: 10.1080/10911350802687075 Na;. (1988). Substance misuse.  Current Opinion in Psychiatry,  1(3), 381404. doi: 10.1097/00001504-198805000-00019 Pilgrim, D. (2005).  Key concepts in mental health. London: SAGE. Primack, B., Kraemer, K., Fine, M., Dalton, M. (2009). Media Exposure and Marijuana and Alcohol Use Among Adolescents.  Substance Use Misuse,  44(5), 722-739. doi: 10.1080/10826080802490097

About the U.S. House of Representatives

About the U.S. House of Representatives The United States is a large, fractured, diverse and yet still unified nation, and few government bodies reflect the paradox that is this country better than the House of Representatives. Key Takeaways: U.S. House of Representatives The House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the two legislative bodies in the United States federal government.The House is currently made up of 435 representatives- referred to as congressmen or congresswomen- who serve an unlimited number of two-year terms. The number of representatives from each state is based on the state’s population.As required by the Constitution, representatives must reside in the state from which they are elected, must have been a U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and be at least 25 years old.A representative’s primary duties include introducing, debating, and voting on bills, proposing amendments to bills, and serving on committees.The House has the exclusive powers to initiate all tax and spending bills and to impeach federal officials.   Metrics of the House The House is the lower of the two legislative bodies in the U.S. government. It has 435 members, with the number of representatives per state dependent upon that states population. House members serve two-year terms. Rather than represent their entire state, as Senate members do, they represent a specific district. This tends to give House members a closer link to their constituents-and more accountability, since they have but two years to satisfy voters before having to run for re-election. Also referred to as a congressman or congresswoman, a representative’s primary duties include introducing bills and resolutions, offering amendments and serving on committees.   Alaska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Wyoming, all sprawling but sparsely populated states, have just one representative each in the House; tiny states like Delaware and Vermont also send just one representative to the House. By contrast, California sends 53 representatives; Texas sends 32; New York sends 29, and Florida sends 25 representatives to Capitol Hill. The number of representatives each state is allotted is determined every 10 years in accordance with the federal census. Although the number has changed periodically through the years, the House has remained at 435 members since 1913, with shifts in representation occurring among different states. The system of House representation based on district population was part of the Great Compromise of the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which led to the Permanent Seat of Government Act establishing the nations federal capital in Washington, DC. The House assembled for the first time in New York in 1789, moved to Philadelphia in 1790 and then to Washington, DC, in 1800. The Powers of the House While the Senates more exclusive membership may make it seem the more powerful of the two chambers of Congress, the House is charged with a vital task: the power to raise revenue through taxes. The House of Representatives also has the power of impeachment, in which a sitting president, vice president or other civil officials such as judges may be removed for high crimes and misdemeanors, as enumerated in the Constitution. The House is solely responsible for calling for impeachment. Once it decides to do so, the Senate tries that official to determine whether he or she should be convicted, which means automatic removal from office. Leading the House House leadership rests with the speaker of the house, usually a senior member of the majority party. The speaker applies House rules and refers bills to specific House committees for review. The speaker is also third in line to the presidency, after the vice president. Other leadership positions include the majority and minority leaders who monitor legislative activity on the floor, and the majority and minority whips who ensure that House members vote according to their respective parties positions. The  House Committee System The House is divided into committees in order to tackle the complex and various matters on which it legislates. House committees study bills and hold public hearings, gathering expert testimony and listening to voters. If a committee approves a bill, it then puts it before the entire House for debate. House committees have changed and evolved over time. Current committees include those on: agriculture;appropriations;armed services;the budget, education, and labor;energy and commerce;financial services;foreign affairs;homeland security;House administration;judiciary;natural resources;oversight and government reform;rules;science and technology;small business;standards of official conduct;transportation and infrastructure;veterans affairs; andways and means. In addition, House members may serve on joint committees with Senate members. The Raucous Chamber Given the shorter terms of House members, their relative proximity to their constituents and their larger numbers, the House is generally the more fractious and partisan of the two chambers. Its proceedings and deliberations, like those of the Senate, are recorded in the Congressional Record, ensuring transparency in the legislative process. Phaedra Trethan is a freelance writer who also works as a copy editor for the Camden Courier-Post. She formerly worked for the Philadelphia Inquirer, where she wrote about books, religion, sports, music, films, and restaurants. Updated by Robert Longley

Criminal Justice Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Criminal Justice Act - Essay Example The 2003 criminal justice act allows the admittance of evidence against a person for a bad character during the criminal process. The new law was enforced in 2004 succeeding the previous common law and many of the statutory regulations that governed the bad character admissibility which was abolished following these changes. The new scheme that replaced them sets out conditions in which such evidence can be put into use in criminal procedures (Denis 2002) The new statute seems to have sent back the position in DPP v P. it would seem that the law disregards the attempt to keep away from inclination evidence following DPP. These changes have been manifested so much in the period after 1999 in cases like R v Humphris (2005), R v Nguyen (2005) and R v Black. Nonetheless, it’s evident that that criminal cat of 2003 discards some of the cases like an instance of the case of New South Wales Makin V Attorney-General-(Roberts & Zuckerman 2004). According to Lord Herschell, the crown was unable to adduce evidence and was inclined to indicate that the accused was guilty of other criminal acts part from those implicated by the indictment for the reasons of drawing conclusions that he is a person likely from the previous criminal record to have committed the felony for which he was to be tried. This outlawed line of thinking prevented the crown from putting up arguments the defendant was guilty based on his general predisposition to commit comparable types of felonies (Denis 2002).

Image analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Image analysis - Essay Example Twitchell suggests that the human condition is one in which we have been inherently materialistic making us susceptible to the images we see. â€Å"We have always been desirous of things. We have just not had many of them until quite recently, and, in a few generations, we may return to having fewer and fewer† (Twitchell 471-472). However, in this material culture, where so many things are mass-produced in a variety of forms and substances, it is helpful to have some sort of guide to help us determine which things should be accorded the highest value and which things are not so great. This is where advertising enters the scene and helps us to define just what is valuable and what kind of meaning or history a particular object might have. It takes advantage of this natural human tendency to want to be comfortable and to have stuff to own, trade, protect or produce. However, despite our desire for increasingly more ‘stuff’, we nevertheless insist on being entertaine d if we are to pay attention to the message or the products it’s associated with. As a result, if advertising is to be effective, it must first appeal to the consumer in an entertaining or meaningful way, such as in the image taken by Peter Knapp in 1971. A basic description of this photograph reveals a greater than expected complicity. Upon first looking at the image, one is able to recognize a very pretty dark-haired girl with somewhat unusual features looking out of the page with an unfocused expression. Her face is heavily made up in what probably is underdone for the 70s generation. Her hair falls below her shoulders with somewhat messy curls gathering on her upper chest, but it does not extend longer than her armpit area. She has rich, peacock blue eye-shadow covering her eyelids which makes her seeming lack of eyebrows more prominent. She also has spots of pink rouge covering her cheeks in a way that looks less

Slavery Before the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Essay Example for Free

Slavery Before the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Essay What is the difference between slavery prior to the 14th century with that of slavery after the 15th century? Slavery existed long before the original slaves came to America. In fact, slavery prior to the 14th century differed greatly from slavery after the 15th century. Slavery was essential to many economic and social structures. For example, ancient Greece and Rome had many slaves. They differed from the form of slavery after the 15th century, though, due to the background of their slaves. Slavery was not necessarily racial or ethnic in origin prior to 15th century slavery. It was often captured enemies of war from many different places. However, when the Trans-Atlantic trade began, the majority of the slaves were African. Another difference is that the Africans were treated as objects, whereas prior to the 14th century, they were not legally the same as objects. Another difference is the jobs that they occupied. For example, the majority of the Athenian slaves were domestic servants, but the majority of African Americans had brutal and tedious jobs such working in fields all day. Slaves were also used to enforce religions, such as Islam. The Ottoman Empire forcibly converted approximately one million non-Muslims. However, the main purpose of Africans in the Americas was primarily as a work force. A significant difference was that of the Aztec slavery. For them, slavery was not considered hereditary. Therefore, a slave’s child was free. After the 15th century, a slave’s child was still considered a slave: it was hereditary. Slave trade was different before the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade began.

Powerful Symbols in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston

Powerful Symbols in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston       In 1937, upon the first publication of Their Eyes Were Watching God, the most influential black writer of his time, Richard Wright, stated that the novel "carries no theme, no message, [and] no thought."   Wright's powerful critique epitomized a nation's attitude toward Zora Neale Hurston's second novel. African-American critics read a book that they felt satisfied the "white man's" stereotype of African-American culture and the humor which Caucasians saw in that prejudice. However, those critics and most of America overlooked the wonderful use of imagery, symbolism, and thematic application of one African-American female's journey into womanhood and self-identification in a male-dominated society. Hurston introduced Janie Crawford, a strong, articulate, and dramatic character whose life was best empathized by women or by inhabitants of migrant farms and rural Black towns. Their Eyes Were Watching God is permeated with recurring symbols, such as a pear tree, a fence-gate, and Janie's hair, that enlighten a young girl's quest for self-fulfillment, as she discovers the true meaning of love and happiness through two failed marriages and one successful but tragic third.    The strongest symbol in Their Eyes Were Watching God is the pear tree. The pear blossom is a representation of Janie, as she is a young girl blooming into a woman during a spring afternoon. Hurston explains this symbolism at the first of the chapter, describing Janie as à ¬a great tree in leaf with the things suffered, things enjoyed, things done and undone. Dawn and doom was in the branchesà ® (Hurston 8) Janie then lies beneath the tree, observes the bees pollinate a blossom, and ex... ...ecade of prejudice against African-Americans, women, and most importantly, African-American women.    Sources Cited and Consulted: Donlon, Jocelyn Hazelwood. "Power: Spatial and Racial Intersections in Faulkner and Hurston."Journal of American Culture (1996): 95-110. Online. Internet. 8 December 2001. Available: http:vweb.hwwilsonweb.com/ Fetterley, Judith. "Introduction to the Resisting Reader: a Feminist Approach to American Fiction." The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford books, 1998. 991-998. Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. New York: Perennial Classics, 1990. Jacobs, Karen. "From 'Spy-glass' to Horizon: Tracking the Anthropological Gaze in Zora Neale Hurston." Novel (1997): 329-60. Online. Internet. 8 December 2001. Available: http:vweb.hwwilsonweb.com/

Is Odysseus a Hero Essay

I feel that Odysseus, like any person, can be a hero at some times and very selfish at other times. During the war in Troy, Odysseus was surely a hero, thinking smartly and protecting his men well. However, in books nine through twelve, Odysseus is definitely not playing the role of a hero among his crew. On almost any page you turn to in the book, you can find some act of selfishness coming from Odysseus. During his journey, Odysseus performs many courageous acts. At the island of the Lotus Eaters, he rescues his men from the addiction of the lotus flower. After the Cyclops captures them in his cave, Odysseus blinds the Cyclops with a sharpened log. Then Odysseus’ men sneak out of the Cyclops cave under sheepskins. Odysseus also performs a courageous act when he steers his ship around the deadly whirlpool Charybodis and valiantly tries to defend his men from Scylla, but she strikes to fast for him causing him to lose six men. When Odysseus arrives at the island of the Sun God’s cattle, he and his crew face famine. Therefore, when Odysseus falls asleep his men slaughter some of the Sun God’s cattle. Odysseus’s extreme pride and arrogance seems to cause trouble for him on many occasions throughout the book. Epic heroes ought to be proud of their accomplishments but they should not brag or expect things from people because of it. Odysseus’s pride and arrogance show up throughout the book. However, one occasion seems to stick out best. In book 9 of The Odyssey, Odysseus lands on an island bordering the land of Cyclops. He watches their brutish ways for days yet he still decides to pay them a visit. His men suggest taking the cheeses and animals but Odysseus refused (The Odyssey, Book 9). Odysseus fought gloriously on behalf of the Greeks in Troy and was considered a â€Å"war hero† of sorts because of it. However, he became to full of himself and did not give the Gods credit for helping him. That is why Poseidon punished him. He bravely endured Poseidon’s punishment and in the end learned that Man is nothing without the Gods. Therefore, I guess that makes him a hero, that he endured so much and learned a valuable lesson in the end.

Introductory Marketing Essay

Case studies are a great way to learn marketing – applying what you have learned to a business situation will help you to understand the concepts well. This term we will analyze cases in two ways – in class, and as written case assignments to be handed in. IN-CLASS CASES: Your text contains cases to be discussed in class. It is essential that you read and prepare the case at the end of each chapter, when that chapter is assigned on the course schedule. Prepare your answers to the questions asked in the case, and have some answers formulated before you come to class. Everyone will be expected to be familiar with the case on the day for which the chapter it is in is assigned, and everyone will be expected to have formulated some comments and insights. CASES TO BE HANDED IN: Here is a list of the case assignments to be handed in and marked: Case 1 – Tablet War: RIM’s Playbook Versus Apple’s iPad, p.29, questions 1-4 Case 2 – Weight Watchers Versus Jenny Craig, p.177, questions 1-4 Case 3 – Puttin’ on the Ritz, p.346, please add a 4th question: 4.) Explain the marketing research process for a project designed to measure customer satisfaction with the Ritz-Carlton. Case 4 – Dove Widens Definition of Real Women†¦.and Men, p.486, questions 1-4 Case Assignment Guidelines: †¢ Cases should be no more than one page in length – no title page. Only one page will be marked! †¢ Cases are to be handed to the instructor personally, in class, on their due date. †¢ Two out of the scheduled cases will be selected by the instructor for marks – if you hand in all 4 cases, you will receive your two best marks; if you hand in 3 of the 4 cases, you will receive your best mark for one, and zero for the other; if you hand in 2 or less cases, you will get no marks for cases †¢ Copies should be kept of all work submitted. †¢ Read the case through, read the questions, and read the case again before you start to develop your answers. Spend some time on the company website getting to know the brand and its’ business from a marketing perspective. †¢ Answer as though you were a marketing executive, not a consumer. †¢ Use marketing words and terminology, not terms like â€Å"stuff† and â€Å"things†. Make each thought and sentence count – and make each simple and to-the-point. Avoid extra words or â€Å"filler† material. †¢ In a 1-page case analysis, you do not need quotes, nor do you need to repeat facts from the case write-up, keep your language succinct. †¢ Write your cases with a business writing style – short and to the point as opposed to an academic writing style – which is more of an essay format. †¢ Communicate well – use interesting sentences, correct grammar and spelling, accurate syntax. †¢ At the end of the analysis, give your own opinion, analysis or outlook. †¢ If your case is late it will be given a mark of zero. Marking: After you have submitted your case and your instructor has reviewed it, you will mark your case, out of 100%, using the type of marking scheme indicated in the chart below.

Cell Phone hazards Essays

Cell Phone hazards Essays Cell Phone hazards Essay Cell Phone hazards Essay How cell phone is affecting us socially. Kazi Mehdi Rahman ID-1210910030 English-105, Section 7 Abdus Selim December 10, 2013 Perhaps you have had one of those moments when you look around in a crowded public place and it seems that everyone is either talking or tapping a message on a cell phone. Older individuals might wonder how things ever became this way, but for younger mobile phone users, this is the norm and all theyVe ever Known. ell pnones, texting ana smart pnone appllcatlon are nere to stay ana nave changed society in important ways, for better and worse. When a cell phone goes off in a classroom or at a concert, we are irritated, but at least our lives are not endangered. When we are on the road, however, irresponsible cell phone users are more than irritating: They are putting our lives at risk. Many of us have witnessed drivers so distracted by dialing and chatting that they resemble drunk drivers, weaving between lanes, for example, or nearly running down pedestrians i n crosswalks. Cell phones have increased the likelihood of traffic accidents and proven to damage young people communication skills. So we need to educate the public about the dangers of driving while phoning and also change the habit of the youngsters of using abbreviated text words. It doesnt take a rocket scientist to know that texting and driving is dangerous. But plenty of people continue to do it. Most troubling: even with all the stories of tragic car accidents happening as a direct result of distracted driving, teens and adults are still texting at the wheel. According to Kristin Marino (2012) text messaging increases the likelihood of accident by 23 imes, the minimal amount of time a person is distracted from road is 5 seconds, in 2011, at least 23% of the car collisions involved cell phones, 13% of drivers at the age of 18-20 involved in car accidents admitted that texting or talking on mobile phone was the reason for their car crash. No One can deny that cell phones have caused traffic deaths and injuries. Cell phones were implicated in three fatal accidents in November 1999 alone. Early in November, two-year-old Morgan Pena was killed by a driver distracted by his cell phone. Morgans mother, Patti Pena, reports that the driver ran a stop sign at 45 mph, broadsided my vehicle and killed Morgan as she sat in her car seat. A week later, corrections officer Shannon Smith, who was guarding prisoners by the side of the road, was killed by a woman distracted by a phone call Besthoff (2001). On Thanksgiving weekend that same month, John and Carole Hall were killed when a Naval Academy midshipman crashed into their parked car. The driver said in court that when he looked up from the cell phone he was ialing; he was three feet from the car and had no time to stop Stockwell (2000). The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the Monash University Accident Research Centre has provided strong evidence that both retrieving and, in particular, sending text messages has a detrimental effect on a number of critical driving tasks. Specifically, negative effects were seen in detecting and responding correctly to road signs, detecting hazards, time spent with eyes off he road, and (only for sending text messages) lateral position. Surprisingly, mean speed, speed variability, lateral position when receiving text messages and following distance showed no difference(Hosking, Simon; Kristie Young, Michael Regan. A separate, yet unreleased simulation study at the University of Utah found a six fold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting. The low number of scientific studies may be indicative of a general assumption that if talking on a mobile phone ncreases risk, then texting also increases risk, and probably more so. Market research by Pinger, a company selling a voice-based alternative to texting reported that 89% of U. S. adults think that text messaging while driving is distracting, dangerous and should be outlawed. The AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety has released polling a a ta tnat snow tnat B % 0T people cons10er texting ana e-malllng while driving a very serious safety threat, almost equivalent to the 90% of those polled who consider drunk driving a threat. Despite the acknowledgement of the dangers of texting behind the wheel, about half of drivers 16 to 24 say they have texted while driving, compared with 22 percent of drivers 35 to 44. Texting while driving received greater attention in the late 2000s, corresponding to a rise in the number of text messages being sent. Over a year approximately 2,000 teens die from texting while driving. Texting while driving attracted interest in the media after several highly publicized car crashes were caused by texting drivers, including a May 009 incident involving a Boston trolley car driver who crashed while texting his girlfriend. Texting was blamed in the 2008 Chatsworth train collision which killed 25 passengers. Investigations revealed that the engineer of that train had sent 45 text messages while operating. On July 27, 2009, the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute released preliminary findings of their study of driver distraction in commercial vehicles. Two studies, comprising about 200 haul trucks driving 3 million combined miles, used video cameras to observe the drivers and road; researchers observed 4,452 safety-critical events, which includes crashes, near crashes, crash-relevant conflicts, and unintended lane deviations. 81% of the safety critical events had some type of driver distraction. Text messaging had the greatest relative risk, with drivers being 23 times more likely to experience a safety-critical event when texting. The study also found that drivers typically take their eyes off the forward roadway for an average of four out of six seconds when texting, and an average of 4. 6 out of the six seconds surrounding safety-critical events. Reference:

How Barometers Measure Air Pressure

How Barometers Measure Air Pressure A barometer is a widely used weather instrument that measures atmospheric pressure (also known as air pressure or barometric pressure) the weight of the air in the atmosphere. It is one of the basic sensors included in weather stations. While an array of barometer types exist, two main types are used in meteorology: the mercury barometer and the aneroid barometer. How the Classic Mercury Barometer Works The classic mercury barometer is designed as a glass tube about 3 feet high with one end open and the other end sealed. The tube is filled with mercury. This glass tube sits upside down in a container, called the reservoir, which also contains mercury. The mercury level in the glass tube falls, creating a vacuum at the top. (The first barometer of this type was devised by Italian physicist and mathematician Evangelista Torricelli in 1643.) The barometer works by balancing the weight of mercury in the glass tube against the atmospheric pressure, much like a set of scales. Atmospheric pressure is basically the weight of air in the atmosphere above the reservoir, so the level of mercury continues to change until the weight of mercury in the glass tube is exactly equal to the weight of air above the reservoir. Once the two have stopped moving and are balanced, the pressure is recorded by reading the value at the mercurys height in the vertical column. If the weight of mercury is less than the atmospheric pressure, the mercury level in the glass tube rises (high pressure). In areas of high pressure, air is sinking toward the surface of the earth more quickly than it can flow out to surrounding areas. Since the number of air molecules above the surface increases, there are more molecules to exert a force on that surface. With an increased weight of air above the reservoir, the mercury level rises to a higher level. If the weight of mercury is more than the atmospheric pressure, the mercury level falls (low pressure). In areas of low pressure, air is rising away from the surface of the earth more quickly than it can be replaced by air flowing in from surrounding areas. Since the number of air molecules above the area decreases, there are fewer molecules to exert a force on that surface. With a reduced weight of air above the reservoir, the mercury level drops to a lower level. Mercury vs. Aneroid Weve already explored how mercury barometers work. One con of using them, however, is that theyre not the safest things (after all, mercury is a highly poisonous liquid metal). Aneroid barometers are more widely used as an alternative to liquid barometers. Invented in 1884 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer resembles a compass or clock. Heres how it works: Inside of an aneroid barometer is a small flexible metal box. Since this box has had the air pumped out of it, small changes in external air pressure cause its metal to expand and contract. The expansion and contraction movements drive mechanical levers inside which move a needle. As these movements drive the needle up or down around the barometer face dial, the pressure change is easily displayed. Aneroid barometers are the kinds most commonly used in homes and small aircraft. Cell Phone Barometers Whether or not you have a barometer in your home, office, boat, or plane, chances are your iPhone, Android, or another smartphone has a built-in digital barometer! Digital barometers work like an aneroid, except the mechanical parts are replaced with a simple pressure-sensing transducer. So, why is this weather-related sensor in your phone? Many manufacturers include it to improve elevation measurements provided by your phones GPS services (since atmospheric pressure is directly related to elevation). If you happen to be a weather geek, you get the added benefit of being able to share and crowdsource air pressure data with a bunch of other smartphone users via your phones always-on internet connection and weather apps. Millibars, Inches of Mercury, and Pascals Barometric pressure can be reported in any one of the below units of measure: Inches of Mercury (inHg) - Used mainly in the United States.Millibars (mb) - Used by meteorologists.Pascals (Pa) - The SI unit of pressure, used worldwide.Atmospheres (Atm) - Air pressure at sea level at a temperature of 59 Â °F (15 Â °C) When converting between them, use this formula: 29.92 inHg 1.0 Atm 101325 Pa 1013.25 mb Edited by Tiffany Means

World Slavery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

World Slavery - Essay Example Today, the most potent instrument of slavery is economic power as opposed to physical power. With most countries in the world joining the neo-liberal bandwagon, the power of money has established itself as the most potent instrument of perpetrating slavery. Previously, slaves would obey their masters for fear of the whip. But today, they do so for fear of starvation. Financial glottalization, euphemistically called neo-liberal reforms by most right-wing politicians, has contributed greatly to economic disparities across the world. In the thirty odd years since the initiation of the globalisation process, the income gap between the rich and the poor has only widened. It might be true that the Gross Domestic Products of several countries (especially those in Asia) might have improved during this period. But internally, the standard living for a majority of the population has stagnated or worsened. This kind of imbalance serves the interests of the rich perfectly, as they now have access to a desperate labour market that is ripe for further exploitation. It should be remembered that poverty is at its most severe in regions with high concentrations of wealth. This is why, prostitution has burst like an epidemic in Eastern European and South East Asian countries that have embraced neo-liberalism in recent decades. Since conventional notions of bonded slavery are not applicable in contemporary times, the parameters for evaluating its existence have to be modified as well. In this new understanding, slavery is closely associated with poverty. So if an individual is not able to eat two full meals everyday, or is unable to get access to basic healthcare, or does not have protection against natural elements, he/she can be said to be a slave. In this condition of acute deprivation, the individual will have no option but to take any work he/she is given at rock-bottom wages. In other words, the

Safety Management Measures For Organizations Essay

Safety Management Measures For Organizations - Essay Example Managers have to hire employees and influence employees by motivating them to take all the safety precautions and use all safety resources to ensure that the organization and its people are safe, these activities are conducted in the staffing and the directing function. 2. Employers use various incentive programs in order to stimulate and motivate employees to follow the safety guidelines and take all safety measures in order to keep the workplace safe and healthy (Friend 245). These incentives have a very short term effect, they bring about a positive change in the employees for as long as the incentive programs are in place. As soon as the employers discontinue these incentive programs, employees resort to working according to their prior standards and their standards even decline. They do so in order to persuade the employees to restart the incentive programs. Incentive programs are based on statistical data, the employees try to provide misleading statistics in order to persuade the employees to implement or continue with particular incentive programs. ... 3. Maslow came up with the theory known as Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, the theory states that each individual have 5 levels of needs and employers can motivate employees by helping them fulfill these needs. The theory states that all individuals first try to fulfill the basic level of needs such as the psychological needs and safety needs, and then they try to pursue the remaining needs in the hierarchy. Employers can motivate the employees to take care of the safety of the organization and the safety of the people working in the organization by providing them incentives so they can fulfill their needs. These incentives can help employees obtain food which is a part of their psychological need, employers can provide job security which will help fulfill employees need for safety, managers can make the employees feel that they are a part of the organization and this will help fulfill the need for belongingness, by assigning employees with targets and work employers can help ful fill the esteem needs of the employees. Once all the needs are fulfilled, the employees will start helping others in the organization and in their daily life which will fulfill the employees need for self-actualization. 4. Need Achievement theory proposed by McClelland states that every human being is born in this world with the need for power, affiliation and achievement and the levels of these needs varies in different individuals.  

Market entry strategy of retailer in China - The case of Walmart Dissertation

Market entry strategy of retailer in China - The case of Walmart - Dissertation Example This area of research was of immense interest because global chain had achieved success and failures in different markets. To evaluate the entry mode choice Wal-Mart was selected for this study, being the largest global retailer. China was selected as the location because of the phenomenal economic growth in recent decades and the high consumer base, both of which have been attracting foreign retailers. Thus, three objectives were set at the beginning of the study. All the three objectives have been achieved based on a study with qualitative data and qualitative analysis. The study finds that both push and pull factors motivated Wal-Mart to entre China. Its home market was saturated and Wal-Mart was driven by the sheer size of China’s consumer base. Since the outcome of any foreign venture depends upon the initial entry mode, Wal-Mart’s entry mode has been evaluated. The study finds that during the time that Wal-Mart entered China it had no alternative but to enter into joint venture but it appears that Wal-Mart did not assess several factors before entering the market. For instance, it did not conduct a proper research on the partner characteristics and the expected synergies; it did not take into account the local business environment, the consumer characteristics and the government regulations. ... While the timing of the entry was perfect (weak retail sector and high potential in China), Wal-Mart tried to impose its home market strategies which did not work in the Chinese business environment. Wal-Mart attempted standardizing operations across countries but this is not feasible in a retail environment. The entry choice of Wal-Mart into China does not conform to the theories governing entry mode choice. This suggests that no single entry mode can be generalized to be the right entry mode. Literature on the subject amply suggests that different factors influence the entry mode choice. This study confirms that different factors have to be taken into account when evaluating the entry mode, without which the expected synergies may not be achieved. The outcome of this study is expected to benefit the retailers that plan expansion into emerging economies. Based on the limitations, the study recommends other areas of research on the subject. Contents Chapter I Introduction 1 1.1 Backg round – Globalization and Retail Sector 1 1.2 China’s Retail Sector 2 1.3 International Retailers’ Presence in China 3 1.4 Wal-Mart in China 4 1.5 International Market Entry Strategy 5 1.6 Rationale for Research 5 1.7 Research Aims and Objectives 7 1.8 Structure of the Study 8 Chapter II Literature Review 10 2.1 Chapter Overview 10 2.2 Motives for Internationalization 10 2.3 Policy Framework in China 12 2.4 Internationalization Theories 13 2.4.1 International Market Selection 13 2.4.2 Market Challenges faced by International Retailers 14 2.4.3 Foreign Market Entry Modes 16 2.4.4 Theories Governing Market Entry Mode Decision 19 2.4.5 The Uppsala Stage Theory of Internationalization 21

Professional Ethical Standards Essay Example for Free

Professional Ethical Standards Essay This paper intends to look into the professional code of ethics of investigators, a career which I am most likely to pursue later. A Career in Criminal Justice that Interests Me   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I am most likely to become a criminal investigator. This is probably the career in criminal justice that I am most likely to pursue as it interests me greatly. Job Description for the Position   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An investigator seeks information, analyzes it, and provides it to authorities like lawyers, for instance (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n. p.). He or she looks for clues that may help â€Å"uncover facts, about legal, criminal, financial, or personal matters† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.). An investigator has so many services to offer including: â€Å"executive, corporate, and celebrity protection; pre-employment verification; and individual background profiles† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.). He or she may also cover the following: â€Å"computer crimes, such as identity theft, harassing e-mails, and illegal downloading of copyrighted material† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.).   In addition to that, they also provide the following: â€Å"assistance in criminal and civil liability cases, insurance claims and fraud, child custody and protection cases, missing persons’ cases, and premarital screening† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.). Plus, they also willingly help out in cases wherein infidelity should be established (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An investigator works around in computers much as their work involves â€Å"recovery of deleted emails; recovery of deleted documents; getting evidences that will prove prior â€Å"arrests/convictions, civil legal judgments, telephone numbers, motor vehicle registrations, association/club memberships, as well as, photographs† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Part of their work is to go on surveillance or search, for instance, they research on how much an individual is making or where he or she works by calling or visiting the workplace of the individual; they also pretend to be somebody else just to carry this out (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.). He or she may also install â€Å"photographic and video cameras, binoculars, and â€Å"bugs† on phones, and others that investigators often use for surveillance purposes to gather information on an individual† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Meanwhile, the duties and responsibilities of an investigator is dependent upon the â€Å"needs of the clients†, if for instance, he or she is investigating a case on fraud, then he or she will stick to this for as long as the client wants or until the case is considered closed   (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Furthermore, investigators have certain specializations and some of these are the following: â€Å"1) intellectual property theft, wherein their task is to investigate and document acts of piracy, help clients stop illegal activity, and provide intelligence for prosecution and civil action; 2) others specialize in developing financial profiles and asset searches wherein their reports reflect information gathered through interviews, investigation and surveillance, and research, including review of public documents; 3) others are known as â€Å"Computer forensic investigators† who specialize in recovering, analyzing, and presenting data from computers for use in investigations or as evidence and they determine the details of intrusions into computer systems, recover data from encrypted or erased files, and recover e-mails and deleted passwords; and 4) legal investigators who assist in the preparation of criminal defenses, locating of witnesses serving of legal documents, interviewing police and prospective witnesses, and gathering and reviewing evidence and they may also may collect information on the parties to the litigation, take photographs, testify in court, and assemble evidence and reports for trials† (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008, n.p.). Professional Code of Ethics   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The professional code of ethics of investigators entails the following:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   First of all, they are obliged to seek the truth (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Second, they are supposed to be fair and just at all times (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Third, they are supposed to treat others nicely (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fourth, they are not supposed to use their power in a manner that is abusive (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.). Even if they are authorized to investigate on a certain case or issue, they are still obliged to â€Å"follow the Federal, State, and Local laws† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fifth, they are also obliged to â€Å"know how to collect evidence properly so that they do not compromise its admissibility in court† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sixth, they should be generous enough to cooperate with other investigators and other professionals especially in the â€Å"exchange of information and experience so long as the interest of his client are not compromised† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Seventh, they are not allowed to flaunt their works and skills in an unethical way which may â€Å"injure/lessen the dignity and honor of his profession† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eighth, they are obliged to inform the public (if necessary) how they may play a role in serving justice (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ninth, they may be allowed to express their own opinion but only based on the facts that they have gathered (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Tenth, they may not â€Å"disclose, relate or betray, in any fashion, the trust or confidence placed in them by clients, employers, or associates without consent† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eleventh, they may not advocate, recommend, overlook or partake, in any fashion or degree, for any purpose whatsoever, in setting up another individual (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Twelfth, they cannot accept a certain case/assignment â€Å"if a personal conflict of interest lies therein† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thirteenth, they are obliged to inform their client what they are going to do exactly to solve the case/assignment and will tell the client what their charges/payments are for in a detailed manner (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fourteenth, they shall refrain from using techniques or methods that may endanger the lives of other people (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fifteenth, they are prohibited to let their personal emotions and judgments meddle with â€Å"factual and truthful disclosures† on the assignments (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sixteenth, they are not allowed to â€Å"directly or indirectly injure the professional reputation, prospects or practice of another investigator† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Seventeenth, he or she is obliged to report an investigator who is â€Å"guilty of unethical, illegal or unfair practices or designs and he or she will present this information to the proper authority for action† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Last but not least, they are prohibited to â€Å"criticize another investigators work except in the proper forum for technical discussion and critique† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.). Unique Ethical Standards for the Profession   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There are several unique ethical standards for the aforementioned profession and these are the following: They cannot accept a certain case/assignment â€Å"if a personal conflict of interest lies therein† (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.). They are supposed to be fair and just at all times (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.). They are supposed to treat others nicely (South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators, n.d., n.p.). Two Examples of Potential Ethical Dilemmas Specific to this Profession and the Code of Ethics that it Meant to Discourage   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   If for instance, an investigator is requested to investigate a woman who is thought to be cheating his husband and the woman happened to be a former girlfriend of the investigator who was cheated upon before may pursue the case not for the sake of proving or disproving infidelity but the investigator may just pursue it for the sake of vindication and vengeance. Since there is a conflict of interest, the case may only be jeopardized.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another example that may pose as a potential ethical dilemma that’s specific to this profession is this: if an investigator happens to meet a person who may play a large role in the closure of a certain case he is working on and the person does not want to cooperate fully, then the investigator may be obliged to treat the individual unfairly, for instance, he may harass the person just so the individual will help him with his case. References Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008). Private Detectives and Investigators.    Retrieved April 6, 2008 from http://www.bls.gov/oco/content/ocos157.stm South Carolina Association of Legal Investigators. (n.d.). Code of Ethics.    Retrieved April 6, 2008 from http://www.scalinv.com/ethics.htm

Elements of Poetry and Essay Writing :: Education, Writing

I was surprised to find that I could use so many of the techniques that poets use in writing my own essays. For example, by choosing certain words, I can set the tone for the essay and demonstrate certain attitudes. Also, I can take advantage of several technical methods, such as abstractions, assonance, and figures of speech to make an essay more interesting. Further, I think it is important to try and understand the poets meaning behind their word choice. After analyzing the poems of John Donne, Anne Bradstreet, and Robert Frost, I will discuss how I think certain elements can be used in my own writing. Anne Bradstreet used words such as â€Å"loved†, â€Å"happy†, and â€Å"reward† to set a positive tone (963). The author’s attitude came across as grateful and appreciative. In contrast, Robert Frost chose to use words such as â€Å"perish†, â€Å"hate†, and â€Å"destruction†, which displayed a negative tone and attitude (1009). I never really gave this much consideration before, but I think I could use this technique in the future. By choosing the correct words, I can make sure the readers are interpreting my writing as I mean it to come across. I also discovered several technical methods that can be used in my essay writing. This is another area that I never really paid attention to. Sure, I have used some of them, but never knew what they were called or understood the full effect of them. Abstractions and several figures of speech were amongst some of the methods that were found. For example, â€Å"Batter my heart, three-personed God† (Doone 988), â€Å"To My Dear and Loving Husband† (Bradstreet 963), and â€Å"Fire and Ice† (Frost 1009), abstractions were used. Abstractions are words that we use to describe something that has no concrete reality (Charters 787). For example, in Doone’s poem, the author used words such as â€Å"weak† and â€Å"untrue† (989). Bradstreet also used this technique by using the word â€Å"love† (963). And finally, Frost’s word choice was cleverly utilized with using â€Å"desire† and â€Å"hate† (1009). These are also considered examples of figurative speech in that they use simile or metaphor in describing the subject (Charters 795). I feel by taking advantage of some of these techniques, I can make my essays more interesting for readers. To add, I found several figures of speech techniques such as metonymy, apostrophe, hyperbole and symbols were used in Anne Bradstreet’s poem â€Å"To My Dear and Loving Husband† (963).

The Movie Ball of Fire

The movie â€Å"Ball of Fire† is a comedy film that is released in the year 1941, which tells the story about a group of professors that have been working themselves for several years to finish an encyclopedia and depicts the story of the group’s encounter with a nightclub performer who provides her own profound source of unique knowledge (Ball of Fire-1941). As such, the film is also known as the â€Å"The Professor and the Burlesque Queen,† which presents early movie stars namely Gary Cooper and Barbara Stanwyck for the lead role in the movie (Ball of Fire-1941).For the supporting roles, movie artists like Oskar Homolka, Richard Haydn, Henry Travers, Dan Duryea, Elisha Cook Jr. and Dana Andrews have done an amazing participation in the overall positive outcome of the story (Ball of Fire-1941). Moreover, the movie tells the story of a group of eight mild-mannered professors who are working hard in compiling an encyclopedia. Their work is seen to be monotonous an d boring but things are falling into place.It is until the language expert â€Å"Professor Bertram Potts† realizes that his section on slang is seen to be outdated. In this regard, he decided to venture into the outside world to do his research. In the process he met a nightclub singer â€Å"Sugarpuss O'Shea† who has problems with her mobster boyfriend and needs a place to hide in. The professors allow Sugarpuss to live with them and have been effective in teaching the professors more than the slang language by livening up their academic lives with nylons and conga lines.Professor Potts becomes obsessed with Sugarpuss but when the boyfriend of Sugarpass wants her back, things have started to become complicated. At the end of the movie, Professor Potts has outwitted the boyfriend of Sugarpass and pursue his love for Sugarpuss by proposing marriage to her. In light of the story of the movie, it can be said that being smart does not only mean being good at the teachings o f the book. Hence, the characteristic of being smart and intelligent can never be learned in a secluded area, more specifically in the four corners of the class.As such, the story of the movie has depicted these notions on the realizations of Professor Potts, that his knowledge in slang word is seen to be outdated and requires a need to venture in the real or outside world to be able to acquire new information. Likewise, it is seen that the purpose of receiving a formal education is to guide the person and empower an individual towards the achievement of his or her aspirations in the future. In thoughts, it is seen the formal education is essential to teach and render an individual with all the appropriate and needed knowledge that a person needs to acquire.Hence, there is a need to balance the formal and informal knowledge that can never be acquired and taught in the classroom, which the personal life experiences can only edify. Likewise, the movie â€Å"Ball of Fire† has de picted that the learning that occurs in the school of hard knocks is as essential as that which is taught in the formal education that leads to a balance between the real-life education and the importance of knowledge that the book provides.In the end, it can be said that the movie is set to provide a better understanding about the importance of knowledge that can be acquired in both real-life learning and formal education. As such, it can be seen that knowledge which can only be acquired in real life experiences is as essential as the education that can be learned from school. Hence, both these types of knowledge are essential factors towards the achievement of the person’s future career and personal goals in life. Works Cited Ball of Fire – 1941. IGN Entertainment, Inc. 27 October 2008

How the Media Affect What People Essay

The standard assertion in most recent empirical studies is that â€Å"media affect what people think about, not what they think. † The findings here indicate the media make a significant contribution to what people think—to their political preferences and evaluations—precisely by affecting what they think about. A he belief that long dominated the scholarly community is that news messages have â€Å"minimal consequences† (Katz and Lazarsfeld, 1955; Klapper, 1960). Many media scholars still endorse something close to this view (cf. McGuire, 1985; Gans, n. d. ; Neuman, 1986; also M. Robinson and Sheehan, 1983). The more popular recent view is that media influence is significant, but only in shaping the problems the public considers most important—their agendas (McCombs and Shaw, 1972). In some respects, agenda research challenges the minimal consequences view, but both approaches share a core assumption. Both assume audiences enjoy substantial autonomy in developing their political preferences. Research contradicting the notion that media have minimal consequences or only influence agendas has emerged during the 1980s (see, e. g. the pioneering yet disparate work of such authors as Bartels, 1985; Patterson, 1980; Iyengar and Kinder, 1987; and Page, Shapiro, and Dempsey, 1987; cf. Rob- The author gratefully acknowledgesfinancialsupport from the John and Mary R. Markle Foundation and the Institute for Research on Poverty, University of Wisconsin, and thanks this journal’s referees and editors for useful suggestions. JOURNAL OF POLITICS, Vol. 51, No. 2, May 1989 Portions of this article appear in DEMOCRACY WITHOUT CITIZENS: THE MEDIA AND THE DECAY OF AMERICAN POLITICS by Robert M. Entman.  © 1989 by Robert M. Entman. Used by arrangement with Oxford University Press, Inc. 348 Robert M. Entman inson and Levy, 1986). 1 But this burgeoning research has not yet generated a theory that explicitly refutes the assumption of audience autonomy and explains more fully the media’s impact on public opinion. This article probes the theoretical underpinnings of the autonomy assumption and provides empirical evidence that media messages significantly influence what the public thinks by shaping what they think about. THE RESEARCH TRADITION The audience autonomy assumption provides the foundation for the minimal consequences position. The assumption is that audiences form their political opinions in relative independence from the media. There are two somewhat distinct variants of this position. The first emphasizes that audiences think about communications selectively, screening out information they do not like (Klapper, I960; cf. McGuire, 1985). The second holds that audiences pay so little attention and understand so little that the news cannot influence them (Neuman, 1986; cf. MacKuen, 1984). 2 In practice, both the selectivity hypothesis and the hypothesis of inattention and incomprehension (hereafter just â€Å"inattention†) hold that media messages tend only to reinforce existing preferences rather than helping to form new attitudes or change old ones. Thus the media have little net impact on politics. The central assumption of the more recent agenda setting research has been that media do exert significant influence, but only in a narrow sphere. In this view, the public’s autonomy is not complete, but its susceptibility to media influence is limited to agendas. Agenda research almost always includes a sentence like this: â€Å"Although a ‘minimal effects’ model most accurately describes the media’s ability to change opinions, recent research has shown that the media can play a much larger role in telling us what to think about, if not what to think† (Lau and Erber, 1985, p. 60; almost identical assertions appear throughout the literature, e. g. , McCombs and Shaw, 1972; MacKuen, 1984, pp. 72, 386; and even radical critiques such as Parenti, 1985, p. 23; also see MacKuen and Combs, 1981; Behr and Iyengar, 1985; Miller, Erbring, and Goldenberg, 1979). 3 Agenda scholarship does not provide a comprehensive theory that explains why media influence is confined to agendas, but selecDeFleur and Ball-Rokeach’s â€Å"dependency theory† (1982) describes an important theoretical alternativ e to the autonomy assumption, but that work predates most of the recent surge in empirical evidence. 2 Neuman (1986, chap. ) grounds his argument in the lack of evidence that media can teach specific information or enhance political sophistication. The concern in this paper is with political evaluations and preferences, which do not require much information—often a simple emotional response will do (cf. Abelson et al. , 1982). A related argument cites the public’s inability to recall specific stories. But the influence of a single news story or show is rarely of interest. The primary concern is the effect of repeated news messages over time (cf. Graber, 1984). But compare Iyengar and Kinder, 1987, and Protess et al. , 1987, for agenda setting research showing that media influence of agendas also shapes, respectively, the mass public’s criteria of political judgment and public officials’ behavior. 1 How the Media Affect What People Think 349 tivity and ina ttention again seem to be key. In the agenda setting view, the media can overcome these barriers in determining the issues people think about but not in shaping how they evaluate issues or candidates (the most explicit discussion is MacKuen, 1984). The problem with the agenda setting position is that the distinction between â€Å"what to think† and â€Å"what to think about† is misleading. Nobody, no force, can ever successfully â€Å"tell people what to think. † Short of sophisticated physical torture (â€Å"brainwashing†), no form of communication can compel anything more than feigned obeisance. The way to control attitudes is to provide a partial selection of information for a person to think about, or process. The only way to influence what people think is precisely to shape what they think about. No matter what the message, whether conveyed through media or in person, control over others’ thinking can never be complete. Influence can be exerted through selection of information, but conclusions cannot be dictated. If the media (or anyone) can affect what people think about—the information they process—the media can affect their attitudes. This perspective yields an assumption of interdependence: public opinion grows out of an interaction between media messages and what audiences make of them. I will call this the â€Å"interdependence model. The competing positions, the minimal consequences and the agenda perspectives, both endorse the assumption that audiences form preferences autonomously. I will call this the â€Å"autonomy model. † INFORMATION PROCESSING AND MEDIA IMPACTS Combining a recognition of the interdependence of audiences and media with information-processing models developed by cognitive psychologists may offer the best foundation for a new understanding (cf. Graber, 1984; Kraus and Perloff, 1985). There is no consensus among those who study information processing. But a number of generalizations pertinent to the mass media’s impacts can be gleaned from their work. Information-processing research shows that people have cognitive structures, called â€Å"schemas,†4 which organize their thinking. A person’s system of schemas stores substantive beliefs, attitudes, values, and preferences (cf. Rokeach, 1973) along with rules for linking different ideas. The schemas â€Å"direct attention to relevant information, guide its interpretation and evaluation, provide inferences when information is missing or ambiguous, and facilitate its retention† (Fiske and Kinder, 1981, p. 73). Schemas are not filters used to select out all unfamiliar or uncomfortable information. As Bennett writes, â€Å"[I]nformation processing constructs [i. e. schemas] like party identification and ideological categories should not be reScholars have used many other terms, including â€Å"scripts,† â€Å"inferential sets,† â€Å"frames,â €™ and â€Å"prototypes. † While there are subtle differences among them, they need not concern us here. The term schema is as good as any, and for clarity’s sake I use the English plural â€Å"schemas† instead of the awkward â€Å"schemata. 4 350 Robert M. Entman garded as rigid cognitive frameworks that work infixedways to screen out unfamiliar information† (Bennett, 1981, p. 91). Certainly people fail to think about much of the news, but not necessarily because they choose only congruent messages, or because they inevitably misunderstand or deliberately ignore media reports. Selectivity and inattention are stressed by the autonomy model, but that model fails to explain why many citizens do think about a great deal of the new information they encounter. Information-processing theory recognizes and helps explain how attitudes emerge from a dynamic interaction of new information with peoples’ existing beliefs. In Bennett’s (1981, p. 92) words, political thought is â€Å"data-driven† by external information and â€Å"conceptually-driven† by internal schemas. Information-processing theory suggests that whether people ignore or pay attention to new information depends more on its salience, on whether it meshes with their interests, than on whether it conflicts with their existing beliefs (Markus and Zajonc, 1985, pp. 162 and passim; Kinder and Sears, 1985, pp. 710-12). While people may resist knowledge that challenges their fundamental values (Axelrod, 1973), most can accommodate new information and even hold a set of specific beliefs that may appear dissonant, contradictory, or illogical to an outsider (cf. Lane, 1962). The explicit model of thinking that cognitive psychologists have been putting together thus contradicts the implicit model in much of media research. Rather than resisting or ignoring most new or dissonant media reports, as the autonomy model assumes, the information-processing view predicts that people are susceptible to significant media effects. In the information-processing perspective, a person first assesses a media report for salience. If salient, the person processes the news according to routines established in the schema system. Processing may lead the person either to store the information or discard it; if stored, the information may stimulate new beliefs or change old beliefs. So selectivity and inattention are not the whole story. Often people may screen out information that contradicts their current views; but other times they think about disturbing reports they find relevant. The notion of an audience that actively resists all potentially conflicting information rests upon an assumption of a deeply involved and knowledgeable citizenry, a vision that does not apply to most people (e. g. , Converse and Markus, 1979; Kinder and Sears, 1985). Common sense suggests it takes more information and time to change the minds of strong adherents than weak ones, but sometimes even loyalists do change. When the implications are not obvious—for example when the information is contained in the form of a subtle slant to the news (see Entman, 1989, chap. )—the probability increases that even activists will store conflicting data without experiencing any immediate dissonance. And while it may take many repetitions of a media message to pierce the public’s indubitable haze of neglect and distraction, this very same political indifference may enhance the likelihood that messages which do penetrate How the Media Affect What People Think 351 will have an im pact. Just because on most matters Americans have so little knowledge and such weakly-anchored beliefs, information provided by the media can significantly shape their attitudes. Not only do the majority of audience members lack detailed, expert knowledge or strong opinions (cf. Fiske, Kinder, and Larter, 1983); sometimes there are no old attitudes to defend. Many of the most significant political contests are played out over emerging issues or leaders; audiences do not have set attitudes toward them. That clears the path for significant media influence. TESTING MEDIA INFLUENCE Identification as liberal, moderate, or conservative is a key component of the political schema system that much of the public applies to political information. Ideological leanings affect responses to specific media eports; different identifiers may read the same message differently. This is why the media, in common with all other sources of information, cannot dictate public views and why an interdependence model seems appropriate. The interdependence model predicts that media influence varies according to the way each person processes specific news messages. Instead of treating ideo logy as a tool people use to screen out reports that conflict with their liberalism or conservatism, the model sees ideology as a schema that influences the use people make of media messages in more complicated ways. The interaction between the attributes of the message and the schemas of the audience shapes the impact of the news. One element of this interdependence is message salience, which may vary among the ideological groups. Stories that interest liberals may bore conservatives; items that intrigue ideologues on either side may not interest moderates, who have few strong beliefs. Another aspect of interdependence involves whether the message is relevant to peripheral or central attitudes. The centrality of a message may vary for different groups, since liberals and conservatives appear to structure their ideas distinctively. Central to liberalism is attachment to ideals of change and equality; central to conservatism is attraction to capitalism (Conover andj^eldman, 1981). The two groups probably process some media messages^differently. This decidedly does not mean liberals, for example, screen out all material that challenges liberalism. Consider an editorial praising the ideal of capitalist markets and proposing to make the post office a private enterprise. While the message conflicts with liberal ideology, it does so peripherally, since government ownership of public utilities is not fundamental to American liberalism. The message may not only bolster conservatism among conservatives, but weaken liberals’ commitment to liberalism, if only at the margin. Another point of interdependence involves whether the message comes from an editorial, with its overtly persuasive intent, or from a news story that is ostensibly designed merely to inform. Conservatives may be more likely 352 Robert M. Entman o screen out editorial than news items that favor the left, since the slant of news may not be obvious. Afinalaspect of interdependence lies in how new or unfamiliar the reported topic is. All else being equal, the less familiar the object of the news, the less likely a person will respond by fitting the report into an established category and maintaining a set attitude. Where the subject of the news is unfamiliar to all sets of ideological identifiers, all will be susceptible to media influence. Four hypotheses emerge from this use of information processing theory to develop an interdependence model of media influence. They are not all the hypotheses that merit exploration, but they are the ones that can be tested with the data available, and they should provide support for the superiority of the interdependence over the autonomy model. Hypothesis #1: Editorials affect ideological identifiers more than moderates. Those identifying as liberals or conservatives are likely to find ideologically-charged editorial messages salient. Those with less-focused commitments, the moderates, may not find ideological editorials relevant. Hypothesis #2: Liberal editorials should exert a leftward push on those attitudes of conservatives not central to their ideology. Hypothesis #3: Editorial content has stronger effects on new subjects of news coverage than on long-familiar ones. Hypothesis #4: News affects beliefs among liberals, moderates, and conservatives alike. People will tend to screen out news messages less than editorials. Shaped by objectivity rules, news stories are designed to appear neutral to audiences (e. g. , Schudson, 1978; Tuchman, 1978; Molotch and Boden, 1985). The appearance of neutrality may soften the audience’s defenses. DATA The dataset combines a national survey on Americans’ political attitudes from 1974 and 1976 with information on the political content of the newspapers read by respondents. The 1974 Michigan Content Analysis Study provides extensive information on the front page news and editorial page content of ninety-two newspapers throughout the country. The total number of news and editorial items employed here is nearly 18,000. 5 The content information (Institute for Social Research, 1978) is matched to data from a representative national survey, the University of Michigan Center for Political Studies poll of 1974. The sample analyzed consists of those who were surveyed and read  ° The study included ninety-six newspapers, of which four had incomplete data; readers of those four were excluded from the analysis. How the Media Affect What People Think 353 one of the ninety-two newspapers included in the Content Analysis Study, a total weighted sample of 1,292 persons. 6 Excluded were those who did not read a paper (approximately 30% of those surveyed) or who read papers for which no data were collected. 7 The content data were gathered for ten days during October and November, 1974. Even though the data were obtained over a short time period, a check suggests they accurately reflect the typical stands of the papers. For example, among the ninety-two newspapers, the Washington Post scores higher in editorial liberalism than the (defunct) Washington Star; the New York Daily News scores to the right of the New York Times, and so forth. 8 In any case, while far from perfect, the dataset is the most comprehensive collection linking media content to peoples’ attitudes. One measure of newspaper content taps diversity in news stories, the other liberalism in editorials. I expect both aspects of the newspaper’s message to encourage opinions to move toward more sympathy with liberal politicians, 6 The actual number of people interviewed was 1,575. The answers of some members of the sample were counted three times to make a weighted sample of 2,523. This was done in order to ensure adequate representation in the sample of sparsely populated areas of the count ry. Thus, the weighted sample is the most representative. 7 The demographics of the final reader subsample closely parallel those of the 1974 national cross section as a whole. The mean education of the entire original sample, including non-readers (n = 2,523), is 11. 5 years, the mean of the sample analyzed (n = 1,292) is 12. 2; the mean income, about $11,000 versus $12,000. On other demographic and political characteristics, the two groups are virtually identical. 8 Further enhancing confidence in the validity of the content measures is their use in such important studies as Erbring, Goldenberg, and Miller, 1980. 9 Each editorial item was coded for zero, one, or two assertions favoring or opposing liberal and conservative policy stands. The editorial liberalism index is a percentage formed by first counting the number of times a paper endorsed a liberal position or opposed a conservative position, then subtracting assertions favoring conservative or derogating liberal stands. The result was divided by twice the number of editorial items, since each item was coded for up to two liberal or conservative assertions. The higher the score, the more liberal the editorial page. This index uses variables 21 and 28 in the CPS Media Content Analysis Study 1974. A second measure employed data on news (variables 27 and 34 in the CPS study). The news diversity measure taps a dimension of news slant that audiences are less likely to screen than editorial liberalism. Like most aspects of news slant, it is a subtle trait of reporting that few audience members would notice. The front page news items were coded for mention of zero, one, or two problems. For each problem mention, coders noted whether two different actors overtly disagreed with each other. Each news item was coded as having zero, one, or two instances of two actors asserting different points of view. The diversity index is the number of times two actors expressed different positions divided by twice the number of stories. The higher the score, the more diversity of news. Examples of the actors coded in this variable include Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, Nelson Rockefeller, Democratic Party, Republican candidates, and business leaders. Thus, a story might concern inflation and unions, and might contain opposing assertions by Gerald Ford and a Democratic Senate candidate on both the causes of inflation and the value of unions. The story would be coded 2 for one disagreement on each of the two problems. If the two actors agreed (or voiced no opinions) on unions but disagreed on inflation, the code would be 1. If they agreed on both or neither agreed nor disagreed, the code would be 0. 354 Robert M. Entman groups, and ideas. The basis for predicting that news diversity moves audiences leftward is that the majority of local newspapers appear to promote a generally Republican and conservative perspective (cf. Bagdikian, 1974; Radolf, 1984). Their editorial and perhaps news inclinations do not favor liberalism. All else being equal, I believe those papers with higher diversity probably provide more information that challenges the conservative editorial baseline. In addition, the mere presence of conflicting views in the news may convey an awareness of the diversity of the country, including its variety of races, economic classes, and viewpoints. Such consciousness may promote tolerance of change, and empathy for positions or groups that challenge the status quo. 0 Diversity may also undermine authority by conveying the impression that a range of ideas is plausible, that the existing distribution of power, wealth, and status is not immutable. As for the other content measure, while many readers no doubt skip editorial pages, Bagdikian (1974) shows that the editorial perspective tends to be mirrored in news slant. The editorial liberalism index may indirectly reflect the political tendency of news coverage. The survey incl uded â€Å"feeling thermometer† questions. Interviewers asked respondents to express their feelings toward several well-known groups and politicians. Respondents chose numbers ranging from â€Å"0† for the coldest feelings, through â€Å"100† for the warmest, with â€Å"50† meaning neutral or mixed feelings. I constructed five attitude indexes using factor analysis. 11 The Liberal Feelings Jndex combined ratings of Edward Kennedy, Hubert Humphrey, liberals, Democrats, and unions. The Radical Feelings Index consisted of thermometer ratings of radical students, black militants, civil rights leaders, and policemen. The Poor Feelings Index tapped thermometers of poor people, blacks, and George Wallace. The Republican Feelings Index was created from ratings of Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, and Republicans. Finally, the Conservative Feelings Index rated big business, the military, and conservatives. 12 The Michigan survey also asked respondents for their stands on government guaranteed jobs; dealing with urban unrest by solving the problems of unemployment and poverty; protecting legal rights of those accused of crimes; A competing hypothesis might be that diversity challenges initial viewpoints, so that it would promote conservatism among liberals and vice versa. That idea is not borne out by the data. Diversity is consistently associated with more liberal views. 1 ‘ Surveys are described in Institute for Social Research, 1979. All feeling thermometers were classified on their face for relevance to the liberal-conservative continuum. Pertinent items received varimax factor analysis. Five factors had eigenvalues greater than 1. 0. Indexes added together scores on all feeling thermometer responses loading above . 40 on a factor. In two cases, items loaded more than . 40 on two factors; these were included on their highest loaded index. All dependent variable attitude indexes used in this paper have Cronbach Alpha reliability scores greater than . 80. 12 Policemen and Wallace loaded negatively on their respective factors. The feeling thermometer responses to each were subtracted from the sum of the other items in forming the indexes. 10 How the Media Affect What People Think 355 busing to achieve racial balance; the Equal Rights Amendment; integration of schools; government aid to minorities; and self-placement on the liberalconservative spectrum. 3 Using factor analysis again, all but one of the responses (to the ERA) were associated together and became the Policy Preferences Index. Twofinalvariables come from readers of sampled papers who participated in surveys during both 1974 and 1976. Their responses in 1976 provide an opportunity to check for media impacts on feelings toward a previously unknown presidential candidate, Jimmy Carter (Carter Index), and on presidential vote (Vote76). FINDINGS Testing the four p redicted media effects requires probing for impacts of editorial liberalism and news diversity on the seven attitudes and on presidential vote. Regression analysis enables us to see whether, with all else equal, readers of more liberal or diverse papers exhibit more liberal attitudes and voting behavior. Editorial liberalism taps the persuasive element of the newspaper, or, in agenda-setting terms, the aspect of the paper that attempts to â€Å"tell people what to think. † News diversity taps the putatively informational element that only â€Å"tells people what to think about. † The interdependence model holds that both editorials and news provide information to think about and thereby influence attitudes, whether intentionally or not. If selectivity or inattention precludes media influence, or if the effect is limited to agendas, the regressions should reveal no significant associations between attitudes and newspaper content. 14 Table 1 summarizes regression results for the impacts of newspaper content on the beliefs of the entire sample of readers. The feeling thermometers are coded from 0 to 100 so that higher scores are warmer (more favorable). The higher the policy preferences score, the more conservative the responses. Vote76 is 1 for Carter, 0 for Ford, so higher scores indicate voting for Carter. The regressions include the following additional variables to control for forces that might also influence attitudes: urban-rural place of residence; age; years of education; family income; race; region; party identification; and ideological self-identification. 15 The impacts of these non-media variables follow expecVariables 2265, 2273, 2281, 2288, 2296, 2302, and 2305 in the 1974 NES Codebook. Although partisanship and ideology are not truly interval variables, the results of the regressions suggest that it is quite reasonable to treat them as such. 15 These variables are coded as follows. Age: coded in years; non-South: 1 = North or West, 0 = South; income: coded in thousands; party i. d. : 7-point scale, 0 = strong Democrat, 3 = independent, 6 = strong Republican; urbanized: 1 = urban, suburban, 0 = rural; white race: 1 = white, 0 = nonwhite; education: coded in years; policy preferences index: adding six 7-point scales, so range is 6 = most liberal, 42 = most conservative; and ideology identification: 1 = most liberal, 4 = middle of the road or don’t know, 7 = most conservative. On the latter, note 14 13 356 Robert M. Entman tations, which bolsters confidence in the validity of the attitude measures. For a full display of coefficients for all independent variables, see Entman, 1987). Multicollinearity among the independent variables is not a problem. Of the forty-five intercorrelations, only three exceed . 20. The strongest was between education and income (r = . 357). Table 1 shows that the more editorially liberal the paper, the more warmly their readers re spond on the Liberal Feelings Index. This relationship suggests that editorial liberalism influences the public’s evaluations of key leaders and groups associated with the liberal coalition: in this case, Hubert Humphrey, Edward Kennedy, Democrats, unions, and liberals.